Implications for teachers

The distinction between expressive and communicative writing means that teachers can use different kinds of writing to emphasize different kinds of learning. Over the course of a semester, typically, teachers might choose to start out with relatively informal expressive writing assignments to encourage reflection and thinking and move progressively to more formal communicative ones to encourage more rigorous, polished thinking. I use informal assignments like in-class reactions and weekly reflections to prompt regular thinking, and to build towards polished essays.

　　Teachers who wish to encourage a trajectory of learning over time might also use different writing assignments at different stages. Here, for instance, is how one might use Bloom's well-known taxonomy of educational objectives to design writing assignments:

Bloom's taxonomy
Possible writing assignments
Common cue words

Knowledge of facts, definitions, rules, methods, theories.
IDs, multiple-choice quizzes, short-answer writing.
define, describe, list, identify, match, state

Comprehension of relationships between facts.
Explanation of how two or more facts or observations relate; narration.
cause and effect; classify, describe, explain, generalize, restate, show, summarize.

Application of learned information to new and concrete situations; problem-solving.
Application of familiar information to a new situation.
analogy; apply, calculate, demonstrate, experiment, illustrate, measure, predict, show, solve

Analysis of information into component parts; identifying causal relationships; supporting generalizations.
Look beneath the surface to explain hidden motives or forces; identify patterns.
analyze, break down, diagram, distinguish, infer, rank.

Synthesis of familiar pieces of information into a new whole.
Present a unified picture or analysis, drawing on various topics studied.
combine, create, design, integrate, plan, rearrange, substitute, suggest

Evaluation based on informed opinion, use of values to assess data, emphasizing reasonableness rather than right and wrong.
Select and justify the better strategy, approach, theory, etc.
assess, compare and contrast, conclude, convince, decide, explain, interpret, judge, justify, recommend, support

　　Based on Benjamin S. Bloom （ed.） Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I, cognitive domain （New York and Toronto: Longmans, Green, 1956）.

　　Even teachers uninterested in such a systematic approach should at least experiment with different kinds of writing over the duration of a course. Most students write too formally, so expressive assignments can snap students out of that soporific habit and encourage them to see writing as more dynamic and intellectually exciting. Using different kinds of writing like journals and response papers can encourage students to see writing as a process over time, in which ideas are shaped, improved, and reworked for readers.

　　An excellent way to achieve this trajectory of learning is to assign one or more drafts or linked assignments before a final essay is turned in. Early assignments, for instance, can require students to show knowledge of data or concepts. Subsequent assignments can require increasingly sophisticated learning—for instance applying an idea to a new situation or synthesizing material, and as a capstone evaluating a complex situation, text, or data set. Requiring progressively more polished drafts is one way of mediating between the creativity of expressive writing and the precision and correctness of communicative writing.

　　If teachers do decide to assign different kinds of writing, they'll need to decide what they're looking for with each assignment and what kind of audience each assignment should aim at. This information should be explicitly conveyed to students in the syllabus, course website, or assignment handout.

　　Whatever kind of writing teachers assign, it's vital to provide timely and regular feedback. It need not always be detailed or comprehensive, but it should provide some direction to students about what they're doing right, and what their"opportunities for improvement" are. Feedback can also come from other students, though most students need some training before they figure out how to make useful comments on other students' writing （reading Nuts and Bolts will help, of course—especially this section, Style, and Structure）.

　　We've looked at some ways teachers can use writing to help their students learn better. We sure need the help, don't we? We teachers know what we're up against. Too many students glide through school on cruise control, stirring only when papers and tests approach. The written work we get is often desultory and mediocre, so we shake our heads and wonder what changes we can make in our teaching. One easy change: build regular writing into every course, and use both expressive and communicative assignments. Requiring expressive assignments like journals and think-pieces compels students to develop a habit of reflecting on course information. Regular writing of any kind makes students shoulder more of the burden for their education, pushing them from the passive role of audience to the active role of writer, thinker, and communicator.

　　The point for teachers: Use writing not just as a way to assess what students have learned, but as a way to enhance and deepen learning itself.