學點寫作知識

i. Important Points of Sentences

　　1) A simple sentence gives prominence to an idea.

　　2) A compound sentence conveys similarity or equality.

　　3) A complex sentence reveals relative importance of ideas.

　　4) A compound-complex sentence shows the complexity of matter.

　　5) A short sentence is pithy(精練的) and poignant, but too many short sentences in a series sound monotonous and childish.

　　6) A long sentence impresses people with deliberateness or ease, but too many long sentences in a series seem rambling(散漫的) or sound boring.

　　7) A loose sentence conveys vividness and spontaneity. It is suitable for reporting and story-telling, but a string of them gives the impression of carelessness.

　　8) A periodic sentence gains strength and dignity by reserving the climax to the end, but if used extensively it renders the style stiff and affected.

　　9) A balance sentence suits best comparison and contrast, exposition and argument; but should only used sparingly(節儉的) for significant points; otherwise, the writing sounds too pompous.

　　ii. Paragraph

　　A paragraph is a group of closely related sentences dealing with a single topic or idea. Usually, one sentence, called the topic sentence, stated the main idea of the paragraph. All the other sentences must be related to this topic sentence.

　　A paragraph has four elements: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, a concluding sentence , and transitional sentences. The first three are the essential elements or major structural parts, while the last, an additional element, which provides a smooth transition between different sets of ideas.

　　A paragraph resembles a mini-essay in three important ways: It is unified, it is coherent, and it is developed.

　　iii. Important Points on Unity

　　1. Every paragraph should have a purpose of its own, whether by itself or as part of a greater unit.

　　2. Every paragraph should be full of interesting, informative substance.

　　3. All material irrelevant to the purpose should be excluded.

　　4. Try to write as briefly as possible.

　　5. A topic sentence can be used at the beginning, at the end or in the middle of a paragraph if it helps to clarify the purpose, otherwise it can be dispensed with.

　　iv. Important Points on Coherence

　　1. The ideas in a paragraph should be arranged in a logical sequence.

　　1) Chronological order is usually adopted in narrative paragraphs, but is sometimes interrupted by flashbacks and somewhat influenced by the author's interest and sympathy.

　　2) Spatial sequence is often followed in descriptive paragraphs, but to start off with or to build up one's material around one's dominant impression is very effective.

　　2. Use connective words or phrases or repeat the key words or phrases to enhance coherence between the key words or phrases to enhance coherence between the parts in a paragraph.

　　v. Transitions used for different purposes

　　1. Transitions that explain

　　now, in addition, for , in this case, furthermore, in fact, in other words, this is, as a matter of fact, in fact

　　2. Transitions that emphasize.

　　certainly, indeed, above all, surely, most important, truly, of course, anyway, in particular

　　3. Transitions that qualify

　　but, however, although, yet, except for

　　4. Transitions that illustrate.

　　for example, for instance, thus, such, next, namely,

　　5.Transitions that add.

　　In addition, furthermore, also, moreover, first, second, third, etc, then, besides, next, again, besides, what's more

　　6.Transitions that compare.

　　like, in the same way, similarly, equally important, too, likewise, at the same time, meanwhile

　　7.Transitions that contrast

　　unlike, in contrast, whereas, on the other hand, instead, but, despite, nevertheless, on the contrary, however, in spite of

　　8. Transitions that concede.

　　although, nevertheless, of course, after all, clearly, still, yet

　　9. Transitions that state a consequence.

　　therefore, as a result, consequently, accordingly, otherwise, hence, thus, in this way

　　10.Transitions that sum up.

　　to sum up, finally, in conclusion, at last, in summary, all in all, altogether, as has been said/stated/mentioned, in brief, on the whole, in a word,

　　11.Transitions that indicate place

　　above, below, adjacent to, elsewhere, here, there, farther on, near, nearby, on the other side, opposite to, to the east, wherever, to the left…etc, close to, next to, in front of, at the back of, at the front of

　　12.Transitions that indicate time

　　after a while, afterward as long as, at that moment, as soon as, at last, at length, at that time, before, earlier, formerly, immediately, in the meantime, in earlier, formerly, immediately, in the meantime, in the past, lately, later, once upon a time, meanwhile, now, presently, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, then, subsequently, thereafter, until, when, etc.

　　13. Transitions that indicate reason and cause

　　because, because of, since, due to, owing to, thanks to, as, for, for this reason,

　　14. Transitions that indicate order

　　first, second, in the first place, first of all, at first, to begin with, firstly, in the end, eventually, at last,

　　15. Some other transitions.

　　1) Pronouns as transitions

　　2) Synonyms as transitions

　　3) Coordinating conjunctions as transitions

　　4) Repeating words for transitions

　　vi. Development of Paragraph

　　1. Narration usually follows chronological order. There are two special kinds of narration: personal experience and personal observation. The choosing and arranging of pertinent facts are the key to effective narration.

　　2. Description: Details are the essence of description. Even abstract ideas can be made vivid by them.

　　vii. Methods of Paragraph Development

　　1. Giving examples

　　2. Comparing and contrasting

　　3. Classifying

　　4. Showing cause and effect

　　5. Defining

　　6. Development by time

　　7. Development by space

　　8. Development by process

　　9. Development by detail

　　10. Development by combination of methods

　　viii. Revising Checklists for Revising and Rewriting

　　When revising an essay you should review its purpose, organization, development, sentence, structure, diction, grammar, usage, and mechanics. The following checklists should serve as helpful guides to these matters:

　　1. Purpose

　　1) Does the essay have a clear, definite theme, a focus, a central point? Is it built around a stated or clearly implied thesis sentence?

　　2) Does it keep in mind the reader or readers for whom it is intended?

　　3) Does the essay seem likely to accomplish its purpose? If not, why not?

　　2.Organization

　　1) Does the plan of the essay follow a clear method of organization? Fox example, does it begin with a cause and proceed to an effect or begin with an effect and then develop the causes for that effect? Or, if the order is based on time, does the paper begin at the beginning and proceed to later stages?

　　2) Are the paragraphs arranged in logical order, one paragraph naturally following another?

　　3) Is the conclusion of the essay adequately anticipated and supported by preceding material?

　　3.Development

　　1) Is each paragraph adequate in material, unified in substance, and correctly proportioned in relation to other paragraphs in the paper?

　　2) Does the sum of the paragraphs reveal enough material to convince readers of the point you are making? Oppositely, have you included unnecessary or irrelevant material?

　　3) Are there adequate and clear transitions between paragraphs and between ideas?

　　4) Does the essay contain any logical loopholes, or flaws in reasoning, that will weaken your argument.

　　4. Sentence Structure

　　1) Does the essay contain any broken sentences? Any comma faults? Any unjustified sentence fragments?

　　2) Are there any dangling modifiers? Any misplaced modifiers? Any awkward split constructions?

　　3) Does the essay contain any sentences that reveal faulty parallelism, faulty coordination or subordination, and other illogical constructions?

　　4) Does the essay have any inconsistencies in tense, tone, or mood?

　　5. Diction, Grammar, and Usage

　　1) Is each word in the essay as suitable and effective as possible? Does the essay contain stale expressions, unnecessary words, or inappropriate examples of jargon and slang?

　　2) Does the essay contain any clear errors in usage-incorrect reference of pronouns, faulty agreement, incorrect verb forms, mistakes in the case of pronouns, agreement of time, nouns in plural form, omission of article and -s or -es after the verb of third person in simple present tense?

　　6. Mechanics

　　1) Does the essay contain any misspelled words?

　　2) Is all the punctuation logical, necessary, and a clear aid to communication?

　　3) Is the essay neat in appearance and has it been prepared in accordance with prescribed form?

　　4) Has the essay been carefully proofread to eliminate careless errors of any kind?