實用英語寫作技巧之三十四 轉換詞語Transitional Words and Phrases

34.1 Introduction

　　In the writing of English compositions，we have to use transitional words or phrases in order to make logical connections between individual sentences and paragraphs as well as enhance the overall coherence of an essay.Otnerwise，the paragraph or the essaywill be loosely connected.To see the difference，let's compare the following two versions of a paragraph：

　　（1）

　　Speaking and writing are different in many ways.Speech depends on sounds.Writing uses written symbols.Speech developed about 500，000 years ago.Written language is a comparatively recent development.It was invented only about six thousand years ago.Speech is usually Informal.The word choice in writing is often relatively formal.Pronunciation and accent are ignored in writing.A standard diction and spelling system prevails in the writtenlanguage of most countries.Speech relies on gesture，loudness，and the rise and fall of the voice.Writing lacks gesture，loudness，and the rise and fall of the voice.Careful speakers and writers are aware of the difference.

　　（2）

　　Speaking and writing are different in many ways.Speech depends on sounds；writing，on the other hand，uses written symbols. Speech was developed about 500，000 years ago，but written language is a comparatively recent development，invented only about six thousand years ago.Speech is usually informal，while the word choice of writing，by contrast，is often relatively formal.Although pronunciation and accent are ignored in writing，a standard diction and spelling system prevails in the written language of most countries.Speech relies on gesture，loudness，and the rise and fall of the voice，but writing lacks these features.Careful speakers and writers are aware of the differences.

　　34.2 Analysis of the above two versions

　　In paragraph（1），almost all connections are missing.Therefore，it is rather difficult for us to tell in how many ways speaking and writing are different.In paragraph（2），however，by using the six comparsion and contrast transitions，“on the other hand”，“but”，“while”，“by contrast”and“although”，we can easily identify that speaking and writing are different in six aspects.

　　34.3 常用的轉換詞語類型（Types of Commonly Used Transitional Words or Phrases）

　　1）Listing列擧

　　first，second，third

　　firstly，secondly，thirdly

　　first，furthermore，finally

　　in the first place，in the second place，finally

　　last but not least

　　first and most important

　　to begin with，next，then，finally

　　the former…the latter the first step，the second step，the

　　next step

　　2）Illustrating（giving examples）說明（擧例）

　　for example（f.e.） including

　　for instance（i.d.） mainly

　　namely such as

　　3）Emphasizing強調

　　obviously certainly

　　undoubtedly especially

　　surely above all

　　indeed most important of all

　　in fact most importantly

　　very likely

　　4）Paralleling竝列

　　or that is，that's to say not only…but（also）

　　and in other words both…and as well as

　　neither…nor either…or

　　5）Adding補充

　　also（too） gain furthermore

　　further moreover what is more

　　then in addition besides

　　as well（as）

　　6）Comparison and Contrast比較與對照

　　comparatives：the same…as；be similar to；and…。，too；

　　（比較連接詞）and…so…；not…and…not…，either；not

　　…neither…；both…and…；neither…nor…；

　　Just as…，so…；resemble；have…in common；

　　There are similarities between…and…

　　in the same way；equally important；

　　similarly

　　Contrastives：be…adj./adv. er…than；more…than…；

　　（對照連接詞）less…than…；not so…as；Unlike…/

　　Contrary to…/As opposed to…；Although/

　　Whereas/While；contrast with/differ from/

　　be different from；however/on the other

　　hand/in contrast

　　7）Time時間

　　now in the past until

　　soon recently after a while

　　later nowadays not long after

　　then while in the mean time

　　before since meanwhile

　　8）Space Order空間

　　under the table in the distance

　　on the hilltop across the river

　　in front of the room next to the door

　　in the back of the room on the front wall

　　on the tenth floor along the street

　　nearby far away

　　inside the house outside the school

　　behind the cupboard by the window

　　round the corner on the opposite side of the street

　　at the foot of the mountain at the bottom of the sea

　　9）Cause and Effect因果

　　since so…that…

　　because thus

　　because of this/that hence

　　because of the fact that therefore

　　as a result accordingly

　　as a result of otherwise

　　be due to be responsible for

　　consequently cause

　　be a consequence of lead to

　　as a consequence of contribute to

　　be the reason for result in

　　follow from bring about

　　result from give rise to

　　10）Concluding縂結

　　in conclusion to conclude

　　to sum up in brief

　　at last in short

　　finally

　　11）Qualifying轉折（限定）

　　but however （al）though

　　yet except for nevertheless

　　of course after al clearly

　　still

　　34.4 Assignment for Unit 34

　　Directions：There are twenty blanks in the following passage.For each blank there is a transitional word or phrase missing.You should choose the appropriate word or phrase of each blank from the given words or phrases below .Be sure to use each of the given words or phrases，some of which may appear twice.

　　similarly，therefore，but，however，first of all，and，even，finally，for example，secondly，on the other hand，further-more，third，when，nevertheless，as aresult，or

　　Since we Americans are a blend of people from many countries，we have a very short history which can properly be called“American”。____，it is hard to find characteristics which apply to all Americans.We combine many extremes from many different cultures.____，we can make some generalizations.Our main characteristics include individuality，a combination of idealism and practicality，materialism，____a lack of parental influence，all of which permeate our lives.

　　____，we Americans value individuality.Our country was founded by strong individuals，and we do not like to be forced into conformity.Therefore，we insist on having a great deal of freedom.Interestingly enough，____，most Americans use this freedom to behave very much like most other Americans，and we are suspicious of those who do not conform.Hippies are individualists，____，but most Americans do not like them.By the same token，we consider ourselves very faithful to the laws of our country，____there are few among us who would not break one if it was felt that no harm would be done by doing so—such as by exceeding the speed limit or failing to report informally-received cash income on tax forms.

　　____，we Americans are both practical and idealistic.We place great value on doing things forourselves，for this is what our pioneer forefathers were forced to do.Many foreign visitors are surprised to find that many couples of comfortable means do their own yard work，their own house-work，their own repairs.____，we are very idealistic：We think we have the best political，social，and economic system yet devised，and we ____expect everything to go smoothly.

　　____our idealism，we are easily disillusioned.This is why so many marriages end in divorce—young couples' expectations from marriage are unrealistically high.____，it helps explain the dissatisfactions and protests of many young people，and ____older people，who enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the world.

　　A ____characteristics of us Americans is that money is more important than prestige to us.People work extremely hard，so many，unfortunately，either have little leisure time，or do not know how to enjoy it.Why do we work so hard？It is not to achieve greater status or prestige，but simply to have more of the material objects and comfort that money can buy.

　　____，our parents have less influence on us than parents do in other countries.Many children are left in day-care centers by their working mothers，____with baby sitters when their parents go out at night.____，peer pressure is very great because children's feelings and desires are taken very seriously，and they are given a lot of freedom to form strong personalities.We leave home at a relatively early age，usually after high school，to take jobs and have our own apartments，____to go to college，where we are allowed a great deal of freedom.We choose our own spouses，even if our parents object，And，later in life，____our parents are old and helpless，we often live far away from them；many prefer to put them in nursing homes rather than to have the responsibility of caring for them daily.Many foreigners find this practice heartless.I suppose it is，____like many other qualities we Americans share，it is subject to change over a relatively short period of time